Reflective Essay for Data Structure and File Management Project free essay sample

Reflective Essay on Data Structure and File Management Coursework C++ is an object-oriented, low-level ANSI and ISO standard programming language that can generate very efficient and very fast programs. As an object-oriented language large- scale programs C++ is one of the most popular programming. Initially when the project was given my first reaction was how will I be able integrate my limited programming knowledge of C++ and fact that it was done in the reverse of me currently doing C programming. This would however cause a conflict of interest that I ill not confuse the programming languages and I would have to do adequate research and revisiting my notes on C++. Given the draft of how the program will be coded, according to the task allotted to me (calculating salary) the first challenge faced was when the hours worked is entered an error check was needed to check the validity of the hours entered. We will write a custom essay sample on Reflective Essay for Data Structure and File Management Project or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page An error check was implemented in the function to calculate payroll when hours worked was entered. Whenever an error occurs the system will return an error message and prompt the user to reenter the hours worked according to the outlined criteria. After reentering the hours worked again a display was done and the gross pay and other calculations were not seen. However after many error checks and tests the decision was made to insert a new function called calcpay to calculate the salary while the payroll function was used to insert the hours worked and check for errors. Another occurrence of challenge that was face when programming the system is that the backup of the system was not writing to the file. This was because the writing of the â€Å"payroll. dat† was done when the system close (exit) and the backup was before the alling of the function to calculate payroll. The decision was made to merge the Backup and Store function in one â€Å"Case† in the switch so that while the system will be saving (writing) the â€Å"payroll. dat† and create a backup copy at the same time. What I have learnt from doing this coursework is that for me to write, test or debug a program especially in C++ is that I will have to revisit my previous knowledge of C++, sacrifices both personally and at work, sleepless nights and a break from my immediate studies for Mid Semester Exams. Based on my contribution towards this project I have a ore in-depth knowledge in C++. I also learnt how to set precision for the way in which the information will be displayed both on the screen and in the file. This was used to organize how the employee payslip will look and the use of a date code to print out the date on the employee payslip. There were other coding and its related terminologies that was learnt to aid in the accurate, consistent and limited amount of errors in creating the program which I know will better aid in my programming skills and approach to programming various application.

Extrusion of Thermoplastics Sheet Essays

Extrusion of Thermoplastics Sheet Essays Extrusion of Thermoplastics Sheet Essay Extrusion of Thermoplastics Sheet Essay 1. Abstract Sheet bulge is an of import procedure particularly in boxing industries. In this experiment, Nova Innovene Polystyrene with Grade Empera 416N ( MFI 18 ) and Grade Empera 622N ( MFI 4 ) would used to measure the difference in end product, die caput force per unit area under different processing conditions. Through sheet bulge experiment, it shows that addition in mass end product as die caput force per unit area increased. MFI 18 produced more end product than MFI 14 as the prison guard velocity decreased from high to low. By utilizing the unfastened discharge informations at screw velocity 2RPMto secret plan graph against with experimental consequences, it can foretell the maximal end product at different die caput force per unit area without making proving. As screw velocity additions, emphasis rate addition, which leads to increase in screw velocity, and so increase in thickness. Web rupture will happen with the velocity of the axial rotation stack and extruder increased quickly. W hen die spread is more than concluding sheet, thicknesses, cervix in, pull down will happen and besides bring forth a batch of molecular orientation. Draw down causes die swell, sharkskin and melt break. Sentmanat extensional rheometer is used to mensurate the extensional emphasis. . A movie of polymer is wound on two revolving membranophones, which apply changeless or variable strain rate extensional distortion on the polymer movie. The emphasis is determined from the torsion exerted by the membranophones. Tear trial and shrinking trial were done, because it is of import for applications such as nutrient packaging. The nutrient bundle might shrivel under microwave temperature. 2. Aims * Analyze how different operating parametric quantities and conditions in a sheet bulge procedure affect dice flow features utilizing different MFI HIPS * Analyze the different procedure conditions affect the shrinking and molecular orientation 3. Experimental 1. MFI 18 HIPS Empera Grade 416N was added into the hopper. 2. The screw velocity was adjusted from 0RPM to 24RPM. 3. The end product was collected and weighted after 90seconds for 2RPM and 4RPM, 45seconds for 8,12,16,20,24RPM and repeated from 24RPM to 0RPM. 4. Actual Melt Temperature, Pressure, Motor Current and Difference in Die Head Pressure were recorded. 5. The same stairss from 1-4 were repeated for MFI 4 HIPS Empera Grade 622N, but it started from 24RPM to 0RPM. 4. Consequences and Discussion Refer to appendix for the consequences under table 1 and 2. 4.1 Die flow feature: secret plan mass end product versus die head force per unit area ( for each class of stuff ) in order to bring forth the dice flow features for each class of PS, as a map of screw velocity. From 1, which is for HIPS MFI 18, the ?P and mass end product from the diminishing curve, is higher than the increasing curve. It is because the temperature was already really high ( 168.5oC ) when the thaw was runing when the prison guard velocity was reduced to 20RPM from 24RPM.Whereas the temperature from screw velocity 20RPM to 24RPM, which was 166.9oC. Higher temperatures, faster thaw, more thaw produced. However, from 2, the prison guard velocity at 12 RPM, the increasing curve has higher end product of 0.59g/min the decreasing curve. In existent fact, the end product mass from the diminishing curve should hold more than the increasing curve. Because, the temperature at screw velocity 12RPM for the decreasing curve is higher than the increasing temperature. With mention to the dice flow characteristic equation – Newtonian ( refer to equation 1 in appendix ) , it shows that with the addition in ?P, Q will besides increase. Â µ will diminish as temperature and ?P addition together, allowing to increase end product mass. The job that causes a lessening of end product rate for 12RPM for the decreasing curve, might be the operator did non roll up the extrudate thoroughly or roll up the sample before the timer has reached 1minute. Refer to 5 in appendix ; it was the comparing bulge consequences for MFI 4 and MFI 18 were from screw velocity 24RPM to 0RPM were used to make a comparing. The end product for MFI 18 is higher compared to MFI 4 because MFI 18 has low molecular weight which gives lower viscousness and so higher end product. Whereas, MFI 4 has higher molecular weight which gives lower viscousness and so lower end product although under the same prison guard velocity. 4.2 Extruder flow characteristic relating to ‘open discharge informations for HIPS Screw speed 2RPM was used to plot the graph, because the consequences recorded from screw velocity 8RPM to 24RPM was higher than the ‘Open discharge informations. Mention to 6 in appendix for MFI 18 and 7 for MFI 4. At screw velocity 2RPM, the ‘open discharge informations was 17.7g/min for mass end product and the ?P is 0mPa. For MFI 18, the mass end product collected was 11.2g/min and the ?P is 0.8mPa. For MFI 4, the mass end product collected was 17.09g/min and the ?P is 2.4mPa. 4.3 Account the tendencies which are established, with mention to extrusion flow theory, and the effects of prison guards speed / stuff viscousness. State the relevancy of shear flow theory to the observation of non-linear extruder features. Screw Speed An addition in screw velocity will increase the volumetric and so shear rates besides increases1. Screw velocity, shear rate and end product are in direct proportion under low-shear conditions2. Shear warming occurs for polymer which will take away from additive screw speed-throughout correlations3. Melt Viscosity Refer to appendix for equations 2-Single Screw extruder feature and 3- shear flow through an opening of changeless dimension, each suggest that an addition in viscousness will diminish the gradient –dQ / d?P each feature, ensuing in increased dice caput force per unit area for an end product rate which remains comparatively unchanged4. 3.2 With mention to this theory, describe and history for the relationship between prison guards velocity and sheet thickness profiles. As the Screw velocity additions, the sheet thickness profiles besides increase. The extruder and axial rotation stack velocities simultaneously5. If the extruder increases faster than the axial rotation, polymer construct up between the dice and axial rotation stack will either wrap a axial rotation or flux back onto the die face6. If the axial rotation stack and takeoff equipment velocity is increased excessively quickly, web rupture takes place7. If the dice spread greatly exceeds the concluding sheet thickness, pulling or make outing down might go on to the concluding merchandise thickness8. It may bring forth excessively much molecular orientation9. 3.3 Explain the phenomenon of drawdown, in footings of how it occurs ( on the extruder ) and the type of distortion which the polymer is subjected to. Drawdown means to cut down the plastic s size by stretching it10. It occurs when longitudinal strain was imposed upon an extruded, partially-solidified thaw due to emphasize created by draw –off viscousness which is more than dice end product velocity11. The types of distortions are die crestless wave, sharkskin and melt fracture12. Die Swell alterations in extrudate diameter at the issue of die13. It leads to longitudinal shrinking and sidelong enlargement, which is caused by gyrating of polymer molecules after being stretched through the die14. Sharkskin is the surface abnormality of an extrudate, which is like a series of ridges perpendicular to the flow direction15. The cause of this might be the acceleration consequence on the outer bed consequences in lacrimation of the weak elastic melt16. Melt Fracture is when a rod like cross-section extrudate is twisted into a signifier of spiral, which is bambooing17. It is the cause of slow relaxation times relative to the distortion rates in which the emphasis exceeds the strength of the thaw and a break results18. It can be minimized by cut downing the dice diameter, which leads to cut down in shear emphasis and so cut down of thaw fracture19. 3.4 Suggest how a quantitative ‘extensional emphasis parametric quantity might be measured or calculated from farther instrumentality on the bulge procedure. The Sentmanat extensional rheometer ( SER ) is really a fixture that can be field installed on shear rheometers20. A movie of polymer is wound on two revolving membranophones, which apply changeless or variable strain rate extensional distortion on the polymer film21. The emphasis ( extensional ) is determined from the torsion exerted by the drums22. Refer to plot 1 for the equation of distortion under force23. Where extensional emphasis is equal to Young s modulus multiply by strain24. 3.5 Account for the consequences from the simple ‘tear trials carried out on the sheets. It is easy to rupture in the oriented way which is the y axis ; nevertheless it is hard to rupture in the un-orientated way ( x-axis ) . A nip cut at the side in the un-orientated way, helps rupturing apart easier. However, it was rupturing in the x-axis, after awhile, the lacrimation starts to rupture towards the y-axis. The ground why the lacrimation ever in favor of y-axis is due to the molecules were arranged in the y-axis way and it was cooled instantly once it passed the ice chest roller, and the molecules were frozen in that orientation. 3.6 Account for the consequences from the shrinking trial carried out on the sheets. Directional shrinking occurred in this experiment25. The grade of orientation imparted to the thaw during the mold filling procedure has a big influence on the shrinking exhibited by HIPS26. During mold filling, the polymer molecules undergo stretching those consequences in molecular orientation and anisotropic shrinking behaviour27. HIPS is a neat orientated fictile stuff, so it tend to shrivel more along the way of flow ( in flow shrinking ) 28. The cut of strips of the samples were placed in the 120oC for 10minutes. By comparing the % length shrinking for extrude velocity at 20rpm with different roller velocities ; the highest roller velocity 2metre/min with the thinnest thickness has the highest % length shrinking of 22.64 % . Whereas, the lowest roller velocity 1metre/min with the thickest thickness has the lowest % length shrinking of 9.80 % . Because of the fast roller velocity, the molecules in the movie orientation are frozen rapidly, and have no clip to rearrange. But one time, its placed in the oven, the molecules were in relaxed province, hence, shrinking occurs. By comparing the % length shrinking for roller velocity 2metre/min with different extrude velocities ; the lowest extrude velocity 12rpm with the thinnest thickness has the highest % length shrinking of 38.46 % . And the highest extrude velocity 20rpm with the thickest thickness has the lowest % length shrinking of 22.64 % . 4 Decisions * The experiment was a success * All aims were met. 5 Mentions 1-3 Extrusion Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor, page 127 4 Bulge Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor, page 119 5-9 Operation, Bulge: the unequivocal processing usher and enchiridion, By Harold F. Giles, John R. Wagner, Eldridge M. Mount, page 437 10 Extrusion Process, hypertext transfer protocol: //online.sfsu.edu/~jge/html/extrusionprocess.html ( accessed on 7th December 2009 ) 11 Bulge Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor, page 116 13-19 Processing of Thermoplastic, material.eng.usm.my/stafhome/ /Week % 204 % 20Processing.ppt ( Accessed 7th December 2009 ) 20-22 Rheometer, hypertext transfer protocol: //about.qkport.com/r/rheometer, ( accessed on 9th December 2009 ) 23-24 Material response to force, Practical bulge blow casting, By Samuel L. Belcher 25-28 Plastic portion design for injection casting: an Introduction, By Robert A. Malloy 6 Appendix ?P With mention to decease flow characteristic equation ( Newtonian ) : Q = g. Â µ Equation 1 ( Equation taken from: Bulge Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor ) , page 117 Single Screw extruder characteristic ? Q = ?N . ?P -eqn 2 Â µ ( ? and ? are invariables of screw geometry ) Taken from: Bulge Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor, page 107 Shear flow through an opening of changeless dimension ?P Q = K. -eqn 3 Â µ Taken from: Bulge Processes, Physics of Plastics: Processing, Properties and Materials Engineering, by Birley/Haworth/ Batchelor, page 117 Taken from Material response to force, Practical bulge blow casting, By Samuel L. Belcher Table 1: Consequences for MFI 18 Table 2: Consequences for MFI 4 Extrude velocity( RPM ) Avg. Thickness ( millimeter ) 20 0.17 16 0.15 12 0.12 Table 3: Consequences for mean thickness with different extrude velocity – refer to 8 for graph secret plan Table 4: Consequences for different extrude velocity and roller velocity, mean thickness and before and after shrinking

Intellectual property commircialisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intellectual property commircialisation - Essay Example These elements are critical in ensuring sustainable growth and product security from unwarranted imitations or claimer of discontent. In particular, patent which is an exclusive right given for invention and production of goods including services is vital for the development of air purifiers. Patent rights give the innovator the authority to claim ownership of the idea and production of the products. Consequently, it provides requisite capacity that prohibits competitors or unknown individuals to claim ownership of a company’s idea. Company A, should integrate its practices to ensure that its innovations and creative idea is protected adequately under patent regulations rights (Andersen 2006)2. This draws a distinction between property owners and developers from unscrupulous individuals who seek to benefit from unwarranted sources. Similarly, Company A, should adopt trade secret system of property security, which is a viable form of IP. The element provides superior protection system to property invention and production guidelines that facilitate limited imitation. It protects innovative ideals of production from various individuals who would adopt such standards for competitive purposes. Ideally, Trade secret facilitates company’s and product registration and protects its information from being accessed by various competitors. The element would contribute in protecting the air purifier concept and development. Additionally, effective trademark system that equivocally defines an institution and its core products is also viable. IP form aids registration of the company’s by names and product portfolios to ensure distinct identity. Therefore, the elements are vital in ensuring superior management of air purifier identity in the company. Electric air purifier is a comprehensive model that is made up of various parts and accessories that facilitate its functioning. Its parts includes odor absorber plus,

Indeterminate Sentence and Parole Major Criticisms Personal Statement

Indeterminate Sentence and Parole Major Criticisms - Personal Statement Example The main central of indeterminate sentence and parole major criticisms is that neither rehabilitation nor criminal sanctions’ cardinal purpose is the attainable goal. The attainable and suitable aim of justice supported is punishment. Correctional officials have clinched indeterminate sentence outside their intractable desire to regulate the convicts’ behavior, and that is both evil and hypocritical. Effect of the indeterminate sentence can be partly viewed to be overcrowding in prisons. The rehabilitation model’s hypocrisy, disparate sentence, non volitional participation in programs by prisoners, and irrational and unpredictable paroling decisions all pilot to unrest, violence, and prison alienation. In researcher’s view, he would support abolition of both parole and indeterminate sentence. Indeterminate sentence presents disparate sentences obligated for similar crimes. Those disparities reflect socioeconomic and racial prejudices. Indeterminate sentenc e and parole require more supervision time costs regarding the administration, yet they do not satisfy the retributive sentiments of the public. As earlier mentioned, indeterminate sentence causes overcrowding in prisons which may easily result into disease outbreaks in the prison; this is a punishment to human healthy rather than a way of rectifying their behavior. Parole requires enormous expenses due to incompetence and corruption within the system. In addition, there is inaccurate knowledge of those who would be previously convicted.

Them typical of the detective Genre Essay Example for Free

Them typical of the detective Genre Essay This is typical in detective fiction because the detective has already solved the case, but doesnt reveal it until he has all the evidence to back up his theories. For example in The Beryl Coronet when Watson is narrating, we can clearly see that even Watson doesnt know what his companions conclusions are about the crime. It was obvious in despair. This shows us that Holmes has made his conclusions and Watson and the audience cant even dimly imagine what it could be. On the other hand there are also concrete clues which are simple and easy to follow for the reader, an example of this would be in the Solitary Cyclist. The horse and trap were to have come this week, but for some reason they were not delivered. The reason this is a concrete clue is because, you can clearly see that the horse and trap were not delivered for a reason, and you can even begin to link Mr Caruthers in with the solitary cyclist. The horse and trap would mean that The Solitary Cyclist would not be able to follow Miss Violet, so if it did not arrive it would be quite convenient for The Solitary Cyclist. Another example of a Concrete clue would be in The Speckled Band when Holmes has to work out how Julia Stoner was killed because there was no way someone could get in. The Speckled Band is a locked Room mystery meaning it will create more suspense and tension. The dummy bell-pull and the ventilator are significant concrete clues because, it gets the reader thinking why there is a bell which doesnt work connected to a ventilator which is not in use. Red-herrings mislead us in our trail to find the villain in a crime, but they also add a sense of mystery and suspense. The gypsies bandana is a very crafty red herring used in the Speckled Band; it leads us to think that the gypsies have something to do with Julia stoners death, because her last words are about a Speckled Band. But further on we are aware they have nothing to do with the case and are just there to hoodwink us. Another well used red herring would be Arthur Holders debts, initially you would firstly presume that he needs money and would go to extremes measures, even steal from his own father to clear his Gambling debts. Theses are the three main types of clue and a well written detective story will contain all three, just like Arthur Conan Doyles literature does. Although Sherlock Holmes solves most of his cases there isnt always a punishment, for example in The Beryl Coronet, when Mary Holder and George Burnwell escape without a suitable punishment. Although they do not receive a physical punishment, they will receive a moral one. There punishment will be as Sherlock Holmes puts it a more than sufficient one. In contrast in the Speckled Band the mystery is solved and the culprit is found, although he has already received a more than suitable punishment, of death. In this way I am no doubt indirectly responsible for Dr. Grimbesby Roylotts death, and I cannot say that it is likely to weigh very heavy upon my conscience. This quote shows us that although Holmes is responsible for the death of Dr. Roylott, it will not affect him that much because he feels that Dr. Roylott deserved what he got for all his sins. Even though Edgar Allen Poe, Wilkie Collins, and others had written mysteries before him, somehow Arthur Conan Doyle captured the public imagination as no detective writer has. The formula Doyle helped establish for the classic English mystery usually involves several predictable elements: a closed setting such as an isolated house or train; sometimes corpse; a small circle of people who are all suspects; and an investigating detective with extraordinary reasoning powers. Edgar Allen Poe was well known for his crime stories in the 19th century and his stories are still popular today. Although he cant really be called the inventor of the detective story he certainly created a kind of detective. Chevalier C Auguste Dupin was his name; he was a brilliant detective quite like Sherlock Holmes in fact. The detective and mystery stories we read and watch on television and in film can often be traced directly to this literary tradition. Contemporary writers continue to reinvent the basic formula so that, over a hundred years since readers met the great Sherlock Holmes, the detective story is more fresh, interesting, and popular than ever. The key to Arthur Cannon Doyles success include many factors such as, his timing. Doyle let his stories loose in the 19th century where people felt insecure and unsafe; Doyles captured their hearts by introducing to them an extraordinary detective who could solve all their problems when they needed him the most. Also Doyles stories were predictable to a certain extent this made his audience feel safe and reassured that the detective would always solve the case unlike the police at that time. Doyle used crafty red-herrings to complicate matters in his stories adding more suspense and keeping his audience at the edge of their seats although the plot would always be predictable. In addition Doyle knew his target audience, so he used sophisticated language and settings and characters which they could easily relate to. This made Doyle stories very suitable to their target audience. Doyles stories often contain many of these features making them typical of the detective genre. Radia Osman Miss Mubashar English coursework Page 1 of 5 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Conan Doyle section.

American Society Portrayed in Tolkins The Player and Among the Dead :: Tolkin Player Among the Dead

A Fractured American Society Portrayed in Tolkin's The Player and Among the Dead The novels 'The Player' and 'Among the Dead' are not simply tales about any given character, as it would appear, but in fact they represent Tolkin's own personal vision of what he thinks American society is becoming. Namely, that it is a fractured society built on false values, where people have difficulty dealing with the truth of feelings or situations and where people will do anything to make money. The individual plots are realistic though, and they seem to work as both true-to-life dramas and broader social commentaries. This gritty realism becomes apparent after a brief look at the events of each novel. Part of a major Hollywood executive's job is to reject writers in the polite 'don't call us, we'll call you' fashion. But when 'The Players' Griffin Mill starts to receive death threats from an anonymous writer, he panics. In an attempt to clear his conscience of not replying, he contacts a writer at random from his old diary, who he can't even remember, and chases him down to apologise and offer him a job writing a new film. But when the writer laughs in Griffins face, Griffin goes mad with frustration and murders him. The rest of the story involves Griffin's slow breakdown involving: knowing he'll get caught; his romantic attachment with the writer's widowed girlfriend; his realisation of knowing he's getting older and a new young hot-shot producer threatening his job, and the real death-threatening writer still trying to kill him. This also acts as a broader social commentary on the way American society, particularly Hollywood, is made up of lies, false values and dishonesty to th e point of absurdity. 'Among The Dead' begins with another executive, Frank Gale, writing a letter. This letter is a carefully crafted 'forgive-me' note in which he confesses to an affair he's been having. The plan is to take his wife on holiday and give her the letter and then spend the rest of the time trying to sort out their marriage. But Frank takes too long saying goodbye to his mistress and he ends up missing the plane, which then crashes killing everybody on board, including his family. The book then follows Frank dealing with his wife and daughter's death and the way in which the Airline company find Frank's letter in the wreckage, and sell it to create a sensational news story and also in defence against a law suit from the victims of the crash's families, as blackmail against Frank.

Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Reform China Essay

After 1989 Tiananmen Square event, the new Chinese leaders have giventhe priority to the anti-corruption work on their agenda and strengthened the anti-corruptionefforts. But up to now, the corruption phenomenon is still very rife , and presentlyis seen as the second greatest public concerns(behind unemployment )? The abilityor inability of â€Å"third generation† political leaders to successfully curb corruptionwill play a major role in their political survival. This article will focus on theanalysis of the extent, forms and characters of corruption in current China, itscauses and effects, and the anti-corruption efforts of the Chinese Communist Partyand its government. 2 The extent, forms and characteristics of corruption in current China What is corruption? The notion of corruption varies with time and places. Accordingto Chinese official terminology , the core element of the definition of corruptionin current China is the notion of use of public power and public resources for privateinterests (‘Yi Quan Mu Si’ )? This is a very broad definition, which can includea series of phenomenon and behaviours and vary with time. Consequently, it canbe adapted to include new forms of corrupt practice. Corruption in current Chinais often links with negative phenomenon and unhealthy tendency within party andgovernment departments. As a result , anti-corruption effort also includes fightagainst all of these phenomenon and behaviours. This definition has three features. First , the core element of corruptionis not ‘abuse’ or ‘misuse’ of public power via-a-via legal norms or social standardsfor private benefits but the very ‘use’ of public power for private benefits. Onthe one hand, this is a very strict standard for determining what behaviours canbe defined as corrupt since it can includes any behaviour utilising public powerfor private benefits. On the other hand , given that legal norms and moral standardsmay change with time, the definition may take some risks to exaggerate the extentof corruption or arbitrarily label some practice as corrupt. Another feature of this definition is the ambiguous of the term ‘private interests’in contrast to â€Å"public interests† , i. e. the interests of whole nation and partyPrivate benefits include not only personal gains, but also the interests of workunits , departments and regions when they are given priority over public interests. Third , the definition leaves open the question of which the subject of corruptionis. It not only refers to individual public officials , but also can includes therelatives of public officials and retired public officials, and can also refersto some public bodies and their leaders (as legal rather than natural persons)? As mentioned above, in official terminology, corruption , â€Å"negative phenomenon†and â€Å"unhealthy tendency† are linked together. Although government officials andthe public generally agree on some practices as â€Å"corrupt† , there are fewer consensuseson other practices. Heidenheimer’s three-category classifications system providesa useful framework for understanding both the Chinese categories and the areas ofconsensus and lack of consensus. Heidenheimer’s framework includes three categories:(1 )? Class A or â€Å"black corruption†:The corrupt practices in this category,including graft , bribe, fraud, embezzlement , extortion, smuggling, tax evasion,etc. , Constitute an important part of â€Å"economic crimes†. Because they are obviouslyillegal and the main purpose of those involved in these practice is to increasetheir personal wealth , government officials and the public generally agree thatsuch practices are corrupt. (2 )? Class B or â€Å"grey corruption† : The key characteristicsof this category, into which more and more practices are being categorised , isleaders of public institutions using their institutional power to increase the oftheir institutions and improve the welfare of their staffs through various legal,semi-legal and illegal ways. Such practices includes public institutions makingprofits by engaging in business activities(such as public bank enter into the stockmarket, the bureau of environment protection selling environment protection facilitiesto their clients), setting up satellite companies , and imposing fines or collectingadministrative fees or charging the so-called ‘service fee’ and then putting theincome into their own coffers. Class B also includes such â€Å"unhealthy practices†as the extravagance and waste , e. g., spending public money to support luxuriouswork conditions and/or life style by senior officials. Such extravagance and wasteis manifested in many aspects : expensive entertainment, costly foreign cars forsenior officials, magnificent and tastefully furnished office buildings, domesticor foreign travel in the name of official business, etc. Such â€Å"unhealthy tendencies†and the associated corruption , both significantly increasing the public’s burden,ha ve led to a significant public outcry. This has led Chinese authorities to attemptto stop these practices. However they have met strong resistance from these publicinstitutions which, in turn, justify their practices in terms of the purpose oftheir practice, the legitimacy of their institutional power and the work requirement. (3 )? Class C: or â€Å"white corruption†: Class C practices constitute a kind of’common practice’ of social life. They include the nepotism and favouritism in thepersonnel recruitment and promotion , bending the law in favour of relatives andfriends in law enforcement, preferential treatment in resource-allocations forrelatives and friends , etc. They are characterised by preferential treatment byofficials of relatives, friends, fellow-villager etc. much of which is, in fact,a way of reciprocating previously given favours. Such practices have penetratedwidely into public life , influencing the behaviour of government officials andordinary citizens as well , contributing to the operation and existence of networksof personal ties throughout China. Creating and maintaining the networks of personalties to seek and give favourable treatment is accepted by most people , includinggovernment officials, as a ‘normal’ practice when they involved in these practice. However , such networks are condemned by those excluded from them although theywill not be hesitate to engage in such practice should they have an opportunityto do so. The late British China scholar Gordon White had also made a similar classification. 3 Inasmuch as the Chinese authorities combine all the above categories togetherin their anti-corruption work , in this paper I will treat them all as corruption. However by so doing , the Chinese authorities have set a difficult goal for themselvessince the limited consensus on white corruption may increase the difficulty of attackingthese practices. On the other hand, the labelling of some common practice falleninto the grey area from the white area and some common(â€Å"white† ) as â€Å"corruption†may help to delegitimize them and/or push them into the â€Å"grey† category , thuscontributing to anti-corruption and social and political progress. The extent of corruption has increased dramatically and sharply since 1978 withthe situation becoming even worse after in the 1990s. This tendency is apparentfrom the data on perception of corruption in developing countries provided by TransparencyInternational and summarised in table. The above table demonstrates a clear drop in the scores of corruption in Chinafrom until 1980 until 1995 reflecting the increase of corruption in China in thisperiod. The slight improvement is likely due to the strengthen of anti-corruptionefforts by the third generation political leadership and the deepening of market-orientedreform. But despite these slight improvements , the public and its deputies arestill very dissatisfied with the widespread corruption and the inadequate effortsat fighting corruption. The vote of nearly forty per cent of the deputies in the1997 session of National People’s Congress against General procuratorators ZhangSiqing’s Annual work report is an indication of this dissatisfaction. In the 1990’s , corruption has worsened and taken new characteristics withinthe above three categories:(1 )? Class A: corruption as a form of economiccrimes has increased with the following manifestations. First , the number of large-scalecorruption cases increased sharply.